Stereotypes: Perception and Globally Connected World

Persuasive Essay: Stereotypes exist because they are grounded in truth The term stereotype has been derived from the Greek words â€Å"stereos† and â€Å"typos† meaning solid and impression respectively. Hence stereotype means â€Å"solid impression† (Henry George). Nowadays this term refers to generalizations or assumptions that people make about the characteristics of all members of a group based on an image of what people in that group are like. For example, black people are considered stronger than white people, Americans are considered friendly, tolerant but arrogant. Clearly these are assumptions and generalizations which are not applicable to everyone. If we just assume what a person is like and don’t judge them individually we are likely to make errors in estimating their characters (Stereotypes). There has been a lot of debate on this topic that stereotypes exist because they are grounded in truth. Although supporters of this view base their argument on the inherent nature of the people and how these stereotypes didn’t just come out of nowhere they fail to take into account the other side. Media, educational institutes and science can show why such stereotypes exist and that they are not based on truth. One of the dominant reasons of majority’s belief in stereotypes is the existence of an influential media that shapes the perceptions of this globally connected world. It indoctrinates the dominant views of the society into the minds of people. An example would be the Muslims image as seen in the west today. This stereotype regarding this that all Muslims are terrorists became prevalent in the west after the 9/11 incident and the media is directly responsible for this. After this incident a number of movies have been made which portrayed Muslims as terrorists and considering the amount of people who watch these movies, it becomes evident that such a stereotype is likely to be engrained in their minds. Besides, there are several other stereotypes promoted by media which have plagued the human society. Cartoon movies thoroughly enjoyed by children are full of stereotypes. For example the movie Cinderella reinforces the evil character of stepmother as is generally perceived. In Lady and the tramp, Siamese cats negatively portray Asians with heavy voices and odd accents, Arabs are shown as thieves and bad people as in the famous movie Aladdin

My Grandmother’s Passing

Each one of us has experienced something In our lives that has left us devastated, for me It was my Grandmothers passing. She was the person who cared for me part- time as a young child and became my sole guardian when I was nine years old, after it was found I was being sexually abused by my uncle on my mothers' side of the family. She became a person who made me smile, and helped me through rough times as a teenager.She taught me how to read, right from wrong, and encouraged me to do great things despite my Dyslexia and Hearing Loss, so when I had learned he had less than a year to live I was heartbroken, angry, and determined to provide her with as much support as I possibly could. In November of 201 2 Grandma fell while getting ready for me to pick her up for doctor's appointment. It was the first sign something was wrong with her. I found her an hour after it happened. She was too weak to get up and was to disorient to recall who I was.She kept referring to me as Janice her lat e daughter who died when she was only six. It took until January for a diagnosis to be found. She had MEDS that had progressed to ML a type of leukemia, with her being In such a ad shape and weak the doctors said it would be inhumane for us to try Chemotherapy, and it was so far progressed it wouldn't extend her life by much, and what life she had should be cherished now Instead of sitting and feeling Ill by medication to only prolong her life by feeling Ill and miserable. I was terrified of losing my Grandma, what if could not make it on my own in the world?I felt I still needed her guidance and love; that I was unable live in a world that terrified me so much, it's hard to admit you're afraid of so much when you're twenty-six years old. The anger ate at me, and I often wondered how I could go about my day with out feeling anger for having her taken away from me, she was eighty-six years old, and surely she could live another 10 years. I was upset and found myself angry with my hal f-sister who had four beautiful children, who weren't even related by blood to my grandma, The woman who took such good care of me as a child was never shown just how much she meant to me.She knew nearly all my secrets and held on to them so tightly. Nevertheless, I felt angry, depressed, and was even more determined to make sure her that leading up to her death, I would dedicate all my time to making sure she new how much she meant to me. She spent her first few months after being diagnosed In a nursing home. She begged and pleaded with my dad to take her home; she missed her books and her 1 OFF wasn't eating, and unable to recognize, or think clearly some of the time. I think it was hard on my Dad to see his mom dying.It was hard on all of us, but to me she was my mother now too, and rescued me from an awful past. I made the decision to bring her home, back to her apartment where I was living alone surrounded by all re things. I pleaded with my dad for him to release her into my c are, and after several weeks of trying the day finally came. She was heading home; she was thrilled, and all the while I couldn't stop to think of what was to come. Taking care of someone who is terminal is a big choice and responsibility.I made the choice because she took care of me, and I felt she shouldn't spend her last months surrounded by strangers who neglected her. Often I would be at the nursing home, and find her sitting in soiled sheets, needing personal assistance with grooming, and thirsty with an empty cup sitting beside her bed. I came daily, several times a day, only to find the same things even when I talked to staff at the nursing home. She was never bothered with the neglect, even when she was lucid she would shrug her shoulders and simply state they were busy.When I asked if there way anything she liked it was simple things, someone to paint her nails bright red, her favorite color, maybe someone to sit and talk to her or simply watch golf, things that were famil iar to her. We ignored the elephant in the room, the thought her dying, I wouldn't allow myself to focus on it. I made sure that ever moment I spent with her I filled with memories, we talked about secrets, she hardly remembered me, but she still remembered all her secrets. I learned so much about her life as a wild child running off to marry a man in the US Military.How her family forbid it being they were immigrants right before WI. So much history was lost along with my grandmother's death. My grandma was of Germanic decent and spoke English, Japanese, American Sign Language, and German all fluently by the time of her death. Her death didn't come as a shock by any means; it did not sneak up on me. I knew that night she would be gone by morning, and so did she. It was Monday night September 17, 2012 that we were watching TV together in her room. She could no longer walk; she went from bibs to 91 lbs in 9 months.She looked over at me and said, â€Å"I'm going to die tonight. I can feel it, Janice. † I didn't try to comfort her, or tell her no she will be fine. I knew Just as well as she did that her body was too weak. She had chose to not have and life sustaining measures taken, I was not allowed to perform CPRM, she would not be on oxygen, and she would not have a gastric feeding be or nasal-gastric feeding tube. She did not have any food in probably two days, when you are dying your body shuts down slowly, and you require less, and don't feel hunger.I simply responded back with, â€Å"l know Grandma, do you want me to stay in your room tonight with you? † For which she simply stated it was time for me to go to bed. She died early the next morning in her sleep September 18, 2012 approximately 4:AMA. I had always teased her that if she was going to die she better do it with a smile on her face, and when I found her she seemed so peacefully asleep with a mark placed on her face. Her death affected me in so many ways.I won't ever forget what it wa s like to care for her and be her hospice nurse, friend, and family. I did it on my own. The worst fear. I learned I had strength and courage, that I could face things that ultimately scared me to my core. She had always wanted me to go to college and become a nurse, and reminded me that often when she recalled who I was. I know that I have the emotional strength to become a nurse, but I rather teach. We always had English in common; she would have me practice spelling, writing, punctuation, ND even grammar with her.She said if I could not hear the world completely, or ever learn to speak my mind through my slight autism, then I need to be able to write it, and write it well. My ability to convey myself in English both written, and orally where her main goal when raising me, and I hope that for some other person who has struggled so hard in the beginning of their life I can help them to convey their emotions and thoughts as well, because with out her teaching me to read, write, and understand love I wouldn't have become the selfless person I am today.

Cbt Case Study

She feels unable to discuss her issues with her boyfriend. Her parents both have mental health issues and Jane does not feel able to talk to her mother about her problems. She has an older brother she has a good relationship who lives with his girlfriend, a four hour drive away. Jane is educated to degree level, having studied Criminology and is currently working part-time for her father managing his client accounts for a business he runs from home. A typical day involves organising all receipts and creating spreadsheets for each client’s accounts. Jane states she would like to get a full time job and be normal like her friends. Jane has a small circle of friends from university who she states have all gone onto full time employment. Jane also has a puppy she spends time looking after and taking for regular walks. Assessment Jane was referred following a health check at her GP surgery. She had been prescribed Citalopram 20mg by her GP for anxiety symptoms and panic attacks she had been having for two years. Jane has no previous contact with mental health services. Jane’s father had a diagnosis of Bi-Polar Disorder, her brother has Depression and her boyfriend has a diagnosis of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder which he is continuing treatment for. Jane’s anxiety/panic has increased over the past two years. She had read about Cognitive Behavioural Therapy on the Internet and was willing to see if it was help ease her anxiety symptoms. Jane stated that the problem started due to family issues in 2007. Her brother and father were estranged due to a financial disagreement and this resulted in Jane’s brother leaving the country with his girlfriend, causing Jane to become very distressed. Also during this time she was taking her final exams at University, Jane states this was when she experienced her first panic attack. She had spent the evening before her brother left the country, drinking alcohol with friends, she remembers feeling ‘hung-over’ the next day. While travelling in the car to the airport, with her brother and his girlfriend, Jane states she started to feel unwell, she found it difficult to breathe, felt hot, trapped and felt like she was going to faint. Jane stated she felt â€Å"embarrassed† and â€Å"stupid† and had since experienced other panic attacks and increased anxiety, anticipating panic attacks in social situations. Jane had reduced where she went to, finding herself unable to go anywhere she may have to meet new people. Her last panic attack happened when Jane visited her GP for a health check and fainted during the appointment, Jane has blood phobia and she stated she had not eaten since the day before and was extremely anxious about the any medical interventions. Jane believes it was a panic attack that caused her to faint. The GP prescribed her 20mg of Citalopram, a few weeks prior to her initial assessment with the therapist. When Jane and the therapist met for the initial session Jane described herself as feeling inadequate and as if she was trapped in a cycle of panic. Although Jane felt unhappy she had no suicidal ideation and she presented no risk to others. Jane stated she had become more anxious and that she had panic attacks at least twice a week. Prior to and during therapy, Jane was assessed using various measures. These enabled the therapist to formulate a hypothesis regarding the severity of the problem, also acting as a baseline, enabling the therapist and Jane to monitor progress throughout treatment. (Wells, 1997). The measures utilised in the initial assessment were a daily panic diary, Wells (1997) and a diary of obsessive- compulsive rituals, Wells (1997) a self rating scale completed by the client Jane. Other measures used were, The Panic Rating Scale (PRS) Wells (1997), the Social Phobia Scale, Wells (1997), used by the therapist to clarify which specific disorder was the main problem for Jane. Having collated information from the initial measures, a problem list was created so the therapist and Jane could decide what to focus on first. This list was based on Jane’s account of the worst problems which were given priority over those problems which were less distressing. Problem List 1. Anxiety/Panic attacks 2. Obsessive hand washing. 3. My relationship with my family. 4. Not having a full time job. 5. My relationship with my boyfriend Having collaboratively decided on the problem list, the therapist helped Jane reframe the problems into goals. As the problem list highlighted what was wrong, changing them into goals enabled Jane to approach her problems in a more focused way (Wells, 1997), the therapist discussed goals with Jane and she decided what she wanted to get from therapy. It was important for the therapist to ensure that any goals were realistic and achievable in the timeframe and this was conveyed to Jane (Padesky Greenberger, 1995). Jane wanted to reduce her anxiety and expressed these goals:- 1. To understand why I have panic attacks. 2. To have an anxiety free day. 3. To reduce the amount of time worrying . To reduce obsessive hand washing at home. Case Formulation Jane stated that for about a year she had been repeating certain behaviours, which she believed prevented her from having panic attacks. This involved Jane washing her hands and any surrounding objects at least twice. Jane had a fear of consuming alcohol/drugs/caffeine/artificial sweeteners, she stated she had had her first panic attack the day afte r drinking alcohol and had read that all these substances could increase her anxiety. Jane had not drunk alcohol for 18 months as she felt this caused her anxiety and made her nable to control the panic attacks. Jane stated she feared that if any of these substances got on her hands and then into her mouth she would have a panic attack and faint. These beliefs increased Jane’s anxiety when Jane was exposed to any environment where these substances were present. This unfortunately was most of the time, Jane stated that every time she saw any of these substances consumed or even placed near her, she became anxious and had to wash her hands and any surrounding items which she may come into contact with again. These safety behaviours maintained the cycle of panic, Jane would always continue the routines that she believed prevented a panic attack. The worst case scenario for Jane was â€Å"the panic would never stop and I will go mad, causing my boyfriend to leave me†. Jane felt this would make everyone realise what she already knew, that she was worthless. Her last panic attack happened when Jane had visited her GP; this caused Jane feelings of shame. â€Å"There’s all these people achieving, doing great things and I can’t do the most basic things† The therapist used the Cognitive Model of Panic (Clark, 1986), initially developing the three key elements of the model to help socialise Jane to the thoughts, feelings and behaviour cycle (see diagram below) Cognitive Model of Panic Bodily sensations Emotional response Thought about sensation Clark (1986) Using a panic diary and a diary of obsessive-compulsive rituals, Jane was asked to keep a record of situations during the week where she felt anxious, and this was discussed in the next session. Jane stated she had not had any panic during the week, when discussing previous panic attacks during the session, Jane became anxious and the therapist used this incident to develop the following formulation. Heart beating fast/increase in body temperature Fear/dread I feel hot, I can’t control it Clark (1986) Jane stated she felt like she was sweating, she had difficulty breathing; felt faint, had feelings of not being here and felt like she was going crazy. All these symptoms suggested that Jane was experiencing a panic attack and Jane met the criteria for Panic Disorder, defined in the DSM IV and states that â€Å"panic attacks be recurrent and unexpected, at least one of the attacks be followed by at least one month of persistent concern about having additional attacks, worry about the implications or consequence of the attack, or a significant change in behaviour related to the attacks† (APA, 1994). During the sessions the therapist continued to socialise Jane to the model of panic (Clark, 1986); together Jane and the therapist looked at what kept the cycle going. The therapist continued to use the model formulation, with the addition of Jane’s catastrophic interpretation of bodily symptoms, to illustrate the connection between negative thoughts, emotion, physical symptoms. Social situation I will be unable to stay here Everyone will notice I am not coping I’m going to faint Sweating/breathing fast/dizzy Clark’s (1986) Cognitive Model of Panic. Progress of Treatment The therapist hypothesised that Jane’s symptoms continued due to Jane not understanding the physiological effects of anxiety. The results were a misinterpretation of what would happen to her while being anxious, and this maintained the panic cycle. Although Jane tried to avoid any anxiety by using safety behaviours, she eventually increased the anxiety she experienced. Session 1 After the initial assessment sessions, the therapist and Jane agreed to 8 sessions, with a review after 6 sessions. Jane and the therapist discussed that there may only be a small amount of progress or change during the sessions due to the complexity of Jane’s diagnosis and agreed to focus on understanding the cycle of panic (Clark, 1986) From the information gained from the formulation process, the therapist tried psycho education. The therapist was attempting to illicit a shift in Jane’s belief about what, how and why these symptoms were happening. The therapist discussed with Jane what she knew about anxiety and from this the therapist discovered that Jane was unsure of what anxiety was and the effects on the body. For the first few appointments the therapist knew it could be beneficial to concentrate on relaying information about anxiety, (Clark et al, 1989) focusing on Jane’s specific beliefs anxiety, the therapist wanted to try to reduce the problem by helping Jane recognise the connection between her symptoms. As Jane believed, â€Å"she was going mad†, the therapist was trying to help Jane understand the CBT model of anxiety and to alter Jane’s misunderstanding of the symptoms. The therapist and Jane discussed Jane’s belief that she would faint if she panicked, Jane had fixed beliefs about why she fainted. The therapist attempted to enable Jane to describe how her anxiety affected her during a ‘usual panic’. Instead Jane began to describe symptoms of social anxiety, this suggested to the therapist that the main problems could be a combination of /social phobia and obsessive behaviours; the following dialogue may help to illustrate this. T. When you begin to become anxious, what goes through your head? J. I need a backup plan; I need to know how to get out of there. Especially if it’s in an office, or a small room. T. What would happen if you did not get out? J. I would panic, and then pass out T. What would the reasons be for you to pass out? J. Because I was panicking. T. Have you passed out before when you have panicked? J. I have felt like it. T. So what sensations do you have when you’re panicking? J. The feeling rises up, I feel hot and I can’t see straight. I get red flashes in front of my eyes, like a warning. My vision goes hazy. I think everyone is looking at me. T. Do you think other people can see this? J. Yes. T. What do you think they see? J. That I’m struggling and I cannot cope or, I try to get out of the situation by pretending I feel ill before they notice. T. What would they notice, what would be different about you? J. I stick out like a beacon, I’m sweating, loads of sweat and my face is bright red. T. How red would your face be, as red as that â€Å"No Smoking† sign on the wall? J. Yes! I’m dripping with sweat and my eyes are really staring, feels like they stick out like in a cartoon, it’s ridiculous. T. How long before you would leave the situation? J. Sometimes the feeling goes, like I can control it. But I could not leave. There would be a stigma and then I could not go back, the anxiety would increase in that environment or somewhere similar. The therapist persisted with this example and tried to use guided discovery to help Jane get a more balanced view of the situation. (Padesky and Greenberger, 1995) T. So you would not go back? J. I would if I felt safe, like with my boyfriend or I could leave whenever I wanted to. It’s the last straw if I have to go. It makes it even harder. T. You say that sometimes it goes away. What’s different about then and times when you have to leave? J. It’s like I just know I have to leave. T. What do you think may happen if you stay with the feelings? J. That I will pass out. T. hat would that mean if you passed out? J. It would be the ultimate. It would mean that I could not cope with the situation. T. If you could not cope what would that mean? J. I can’t function, I can’t do anything. I‘m just no use. T. How much do you believe that? Can you rate it out of 100%? J. Now. About 60% if I did faint it would be about 100% T. Have you ever fainted due t o the sensations you have described to me? J. No. I have fainted because I’m squeamish. I don’t like blood. Or having any kind of tests at the GP. T. So do I understand you? You have never fainted due to the panic sensations? J. No. I’ve felt like it. T. So you’ve never passed out due to the symptoms? What do you make that? J. I don’t know, that would mean that what I believe is stupid. It’s hard to get my head around it. Session 2-3 The therapist used a social phobia/panic rating scale measures to ascertain the main problem; this was increasingly difficult as throughout each session the patient expanded on her symptoms. The therapist managed to understand that the patient avoided most social situations due to her beliefs about certain substances; this caused the obsessive hand-washing. This then had an impact on Jane’s ability to go anywhere in case she could not wash herself or objects around her. Jane also believed fainting from blood phobia had the same physical effects as panic, and she would faint if she panicked. It was complicated and the therapist attempted to draw out a formulation. I SEE A PERSON DRINKING ALCOHOL IT’S GOING TO GET ON MY HANDS AND INTO MY MOUTH I FEEL SICK, I’M GOING TO FAINT I FEEL DREAD, I FEEL ANXIOUS, SWEATING I MUST WASH MY HANDS TO STOP THE PANIC GETTING WORSE. Session 4 The formulation shows the extent of Jane’s panic and how her safety behaviours were impacting on all aspects of her life. The therapist attempted again to use information about the causes of anxiety and its effects on the body. The therapist explained what happens when you faint due to blood phobia, this was an attempt to supply Jane with counter evidence for her catastrophic interpretations of her panic. The therapist also used evidence to contrast the effects on the body when fainting and when panicking. After two sessions, the therapist continued to provide and attempted to relay the facts about the nature of anxiety/panic/fainting with the inclusion of behavioural experiments. Educational procedures are a valid part of overall cognitive restructuring strategies, incorporated with questioning evidence for misinterpretations and behavioural experiments (Wells, 1997) The therapist asked Jane to explain to the therapist the function/effects of adrenalin, to see if Jane was beginning to understand and if there had been any shift in her beliefs about panic. The following dialogue may help to illustrate the difficulties the therapist encountered; T. Over the last few sessions, we have been discussing anxiety and the function of adrenalin. Do you understand the physical changes we have looked at? Does it make sense to you? J. Yes. Something has clicked inside my head. I feel less insane now, I understand more about what’s going on. It makes things a little bit easier, but it takes time for it to sink in. T. Do you think you could explain to me what you understand about anxiety/adrenalin? J. As I interpret it is, I like to think of it as, â€Å"I’m not anxious it’s just my adrenalin, It’s just the effects of adrenalin effecting my body† but it’s hard to get from there, to accepting the adrenalin is not going to harm me. I know logically it’s not. But it’s still hard. T. That’s great you’re beginning to question what you have believed and are thinking there may be other explanations for your symptoms. J. Yes. But I still think it’s to do with luck. I have good or bad luck each day and that predicts whether I have a panic or not. I think I’ll be unlucky soon. Session 5-6 The therapist continued to try use behavioural experiments during the sessions to provide further evidence to try to alter Jane’s beliefs about anxiety. The therapist agreed with Jane that they would imitate all the symptoms of panic. Making the room hot, exercising to increase heart rate and body temperature, hyperventilation (ten minutes) Focusing on breathing/swallowing. This continued for most of session 5. As neither the therapist nor Jane fainted, they discussed this and Jane stated it was different in the session than when she with other people. Jane also stated she felt safe and trusted the therapist, she did not believe she could be strong enough to try the experiments alone, as it was â€Å"too scary† The therapist asked Jane to draw a picture of how she felt and put them on the diagram of a person, this then was used to compare with anxiety symptoms, while talking through them with the therapist. The therapist and Jane created a survey about fainting and Jane took this away as homework to gain further evidence. The survey included 6 different questions about fainting e. g. – What people knew about fainting/how they would feel about seeing someone faint, etc. Treatment Outcome The treatment with Jane continues. The next session will be the 6th and there will be a review of progress and any improvements. There has been no improvement in measures as noted yet. The therapist intends to use a panic rating scale (PRS) Wells, (1997) during the next session. The therapist will continue to see Jane for two more sess ions, looking at what Jane has found helpful/unhelpful. Discussion Overall the therapist found the therapy unsuccessful. Although Jane stated she found it helpful, it was difficult for the therapist to see the progress due to the many layers of complexity of Jane’s diagnosis. The therapist has grown more confident in the CBT process and understands that as a trainee, the therapist tried to incorporate all the new skills within each session. The therapist was disappointed that they were unable to guide Jane through the therapy process with a better result. The therapist would have like to have been able to fully establish an understanding of Jane’s complex symptoms earlier on in the therapy. The therapist believes that Jane’s symptoms were very complex and the therapist may have been more successful with a client with a less complicated diagnosis. The therapist would then be able to gain more information via the appropriate measures to enable the formulations in a concise manner. This has been a huge learning curve for the therapist and has encouraged them to seek out continuing CBT supervision within the therapist’s workplace. This is essential to continue the development of the therapist’s skills. The therapist feels that although this has not had the outcome that the therapist would have wanted, it has been a positive experience for Jane. There appeared to be a successful therapeutic relationship, Jane appeared comfortable and able to communicate what her problems were to the therapist from the beginning of therapy. The therapist hopes this will encourage Jane to engage with further CBT therapy in the future and the therapist over the final session hopes to be able to support Jane in creating a therapy blueprint, reviewing what Jane has found helpful. Certificate in CBT September – December 2009 CBT Case Study Panic/Social Phobia/OCD WORD COUNT 3,400 References APA (1994). Diagnostic Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Revised, 4th edn. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association Padesky, C. A Greenberger, D. (1995). Clinicians Guide to Mind Over Mood. New York: Guilford Padesky, C. A Greenberger, D. (1995). Mind Over Mood. New York: Guilford Wells, A (1997). Cognitive Therapy of Anxiety Disorders. Chichester, UK: Wiley Cbt Case Study She feels unable to discuss her issues with her boyfriend. Her parents both have mental health issues and Jane does not feel able to talk to her mother about her problems. She has an older brother she has a good relationship who lives with his girlfriend, a four hour drive away. Jane is educated to degree level, having studied Criminology and is currently working part-time for her father managing his client accounts for a business he runs from home. A typical day involves organising all receipts and creating spreadsheets for each client’s accounts. Jane states she would like to get a full time job and be normal like her friends. Jane has a small circle of friends from university who she states have all gone onto full time employment. Jane also has a puppy she spends time looking after and taking for regular walks. Assessment Jane was referred following a health check at her GP surgery. She had been prescribed Citalopram 20mg by her GP for anxiety symptoms and panic attacks she had been having for two years. Jane has no previous contact with mental health services. Jane’s father had a diagnosis of Bi-Polar Disorder, her brother has Depression and her boyfriend has a diagnosis of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder which he is continuing treatment for. Jane’s anxiety/panic has increased over the past two years. She had read about Cognitive Behavioural Therapy on the Internet and was willing to see if it was help ease her anxiety symptoms. Jane stated that the problem started due to family issues in 2007. Her brother and father were estranged due to a financial disagreement and this resulted in Jane’s brother leaving the country with his girlfriend, causing Jane to become very distressed. Also during this time she was taking her final exams at University, Jane states this was when she experienced her first panic attack. She had spent the evening before her brother left the country, drinking alcohol with friends, she remembers feeling ‘hung-over’ the next day. While travelling in the car to the airport, with her brother and his girlfriend, Jane states she started to feel unwell, she found it difficult to breathe, felt hot, trapped and felt like she was going to faint. Jane stated she felt â€Å"embarrassed† and â€Å"stupid† and had since experienced other panic attacks and increased anxiety, anticipating panic attacks in social situations. Jane had reduced where she went to, finding herself unable to go anywhere she may have to meet new people. Her last panic attack happened when Jane visited her GP for a health check and fainted during the appointment, Jane has blood phobia and she stated she had not eaten since the day before and was extremely anxious about the any medical interventions. Jane believes it was a panic attack that caused her to faint. The GP prescribed her 20mg of Citalopram, a few weeks prior to her initial assessment with the therapist. When Jane and the therapist met for the initial session Jane described herself as feeling inadequate and as if she was trapped in a cycle of panic. Although Jane felt unhappy she had no suicidal ideation and she presented no risk to others. Jane stated she had become more anxious and that she had panic attacks at least twice a week. Prior to and during therapy, Jane was assessed using various measures. These enabled the therapist to formulate a hypothesis regarding the severity of the problem, also acting as a baseline, enabling the therapist and Jane to monitor progress throughout treatment. (Wells, 1997). The measures utilised in the initial assessment were a daily panic diary, Wells (1997) and a diary of obsessive- compulsive rituals, Wells (1997) a self rating scale completed by the client Jane. Other measures used were, The Panic Rating Scale (PRS) Wells (1997), the Social Phobia Scale, Wells (1997), used by the therapist to clarify which specific disorder was the main problem for Jane. Having collated information from the initial measures, a problem list was created so the therapist and Jane could decide what to focus on first. This list was based on Jane’s account of the worst problems which were given priority over those problems which were less distressing. Problem List 1. Anxiety/Panic attacks 2. Obsessive hand washing. 3. My relationship with my family. 4. Not having a full time job. 5. My relationship with my boyfriend Having collaboratively decided on the problem list, the therapist helped Jane reframe the problems into goals. As the problem list highlighted what was wrong, changing them into goals enabled Jane to approach her problems in a more focused way (Wells, 1997), the therapist discussed goals with Jane and she decided what she wanted to get from therapy. It was important for the therapist to ensure that any goals were realistic and achievable in the timeframe and this was conveyed to Jane (Padesky Greenberger, 1995). Jane wanted to reduce her anxiety and expressed these goals:- 1. To understand why I have panic attacks. 2. To have an anxiety free day. 3. To reduce the amount of time worrying . To reduce obsessive hand washing at home. Case Formulation Jane stated that for about a year she had been repeating certain behaviours, which she believed prevented her from having panic attacks. This involved Jane washing her hands and any surrounding objects at least twice. Jane had a fear of consuming alcohol/drugs/caffeine/artificial sweeteners, she stated she had had her first panic attack the day afte r drinking alcohol and had read that all these substances could increase her anxiety. Jane had not drunk alcohol for 18 months as she felt this caused her anxiety and made her nable to control the panic attacks. Jane stated she feared that if any of these substances got on her hands and then into her mouth she would have a panic attack and faint. These beliefs increased Jane’s anxiety when Jane was exposed to any environment where these substances were present. This unfortunately was most of the time, Jane stated that every time she saw any of these substances consumed or even placed near her, she became anxious and had to wash her hands and any surrounding items which she may come into contact with again. These safety behaviours maintained the cycle of panic, Jane would always continue the routines that she believed prevented a panic attack. The worst case scenario for Jane was â€Å"the panic would never stop and I will go mad, causing my boyfriend to leave me†. Jane felt this would make everyone realise what she already knew, that she was worthless. Her last panic attack happened when Jane had visited her GP; this caused Jane feelings of shame. â€Å"There’s all these people achieving, doing great things and I can’t do the most basic things† The therapist used the Cognitive Model of Panic (Clark, 1986), initially developing the three key elements of the model to help socialise Jane to the thoughts, feelings and behaviour cycle (see diagram below) Cognitive Model of Panic Bodily sensations Emotional response Thought about sensation Clark (1986) Using a panic diary and a diary of obsessive-compulsive rituals, Jane was asked to keep a record of situations during the week where she felt anxious, and this was discussed in the next session. Jane stated she had not had any panic during the week, when discussing previous panic attacks during the session, Jane became anxious and the therapist used this incident to develop the following formulation. Heart beating fast/increase in body temperature Fear/dread I feel hot, I can’t control it Clark (1986) Jane stated she felt like she was sweating, she had difficulty breathing; felt faint, had feelings of not being here and felt like she was going crazy. All these symptoms suggested that Jane was experiencing a panic attack and Jane met the criteria for Panic Disorder, defined in the DSM IV and states that â€Å"panic attacks be recurrent and unexpected, at least one of the attacks be followed by at least one month of persistent concern about having additional attacks, worry about the implications or consequence of the attack, or a significant change in behaviour related to the attacks† (APA, 1994). During the sessions the therapist continued to socialise Jane to the model of panic (Clark, 1986); together Jane and the therapist looked at what kept the cycle going. The therapist continued to use the model formulation, with the addition of Jane’s catastrophic interpretation of bodily symptoms, to illustrate the connection between negative thoughts, emotion, physical symptoms. Social situation I will be unable to stay here Everyone will notice I am not coping I’m going to faint Sweating/breathing fast/dizzy Clark’s (1986) Cognitive Model of Panic. Progress of Treatment The therapist hypothesised that Jane’s symptoms continued due to Jane not understanding the physiological effects of anxiety. The results were a misinterpretation of what would happen to her while being anxious, and this maintained the panic cycle. Although Jane tried to avoid any anxiety by using safety behaviours, she eventually increased the anxiety she experienced. Session 1 After the initial assessment sessions, the therapist and Jane agreed to 8 sessions, with a review after 6 sessions. Jane and the therapist discussed that there may only be a small amount of progress or change during the sessions due to the complexity of Jane’s diagnosis and agreed to focus on understanding the cycle of panic (Clark, 1986) From the information gained from the formulation process, the therapist tried psycho education. The therapist was attempting to illicit a shift in Jane’s belief about what, how and why these symptoms were happening. The therapist discussed with Jane what she knew about anxiety and from this the therapist discovered that Jane was unsure of what anxiety was and the effects on the body. For the first few appointments the therapist knew it could be beneficial to concentrate on relaying information about anxiety, (Clark et al, 1989) focusing on Jane’s specific beliefs anxiety, the therapist wanted to try to reduce the problem by helping Jane recognise the connection between her symptoms. As Jane believed, â€Å"she was going mad†, the therapist was trying to help Jane understand the CBT model of anxiety and to alter Jane’s misunderstanding of the symptoms. The therapist and Jane discussed Jane’s belief that she would faint if she panicked, Jane had fixed beliefs about why she fainted. The therapist attempted to enable Jane to describe how her anxiety affected her during a ‘usual panic’. Instead Jane began to describe symptoms of social anxiety, this suggested to the therapist that the main problems could be a combination of /social phobia and obsessive behaviours; the following dialogue may help to illustrate this. T. When you begin to become anxious, what goes through your head? J. I need a backup plan; I need to know how to get out of there. Especially if it’s in an office, or a small room. T. What would happen if you did not get out? J. I would panic, and then pass out T. What would the reasons be for you to pass out? J. Because I was panicking. T. Have you passed out before when you have panicked? J. I have felt like it. T. So what sensations do you have when you’re panicking? J. The feeling rises up, I feel hot and I can’t see straight. I get red flashes in front of my eyes, like a warning. My vision goes hazy. I think everyone is looking at me. T. Do you think other people can see this? J. Yes. T. What do you think they see? J. That I’m struggling and I cannot cope or, I try to get out of the situation by pretending I feel ill before they notice. T. What would they notice, what would be different about you? J. I stick out like a beacon, I’m sweating, loads of sweat and my face is bright red. T. How red would your face be, as red as that â€Å"No Smoking† sign on the wall? J. Yes! I’m dripping with sweat and my eyes are really staring, feels like they stick out like in a cartoon, it’s ridiculous. T. How long before you would leave the situation? J. Sometimes the feeling goes, like I can control it. But I could not leave. There would be a stigma and then I could not go back, the anxiety would increase in that environment or somewhere similar. The therapist persisted with this example and tried to use guided discovery to help Jane get a more balanced view of the situation. (Padesky and Greenberger, 1995) T. So you would not go back? J. I would if I felt safe, like with my boyfriend or I could leave whenever I wanted to. It’s the last straw if I have to go. It makes it even harder. T. You say that sometimes it goes away. What’s different about then and times when you have to leave? J. It’s like I just know I have to leave. T. What do you think may happen if you stay with the feelings? J. That I will pass out. T. hat would that mean if you passed out? J. It would be the ultimate. It would mean that I could not cope with the situation. T. If you could not cope what would that mean? J. I can’t function, I can’t do anything. I‘m just no use. T. How much do you believe that? Can you rate it out of 100%? J. Now. About 60% if I did faint it would be about 100% T. Have you ever fainted due t o the sensations you have described to me? J. No. I have fainted because I’m squeamish. I don’t like blood. Or having any kind of tests at the GP. T. So do I understand you? You have never fainted due to the panic sensations? J. No. I’ve felt like it. T. So you’ve never passed out due to the symptoms? What do you make that? J. I don’t know, that would mean that what I believe is stupid. It’s hard to get my head around it. Session 2-3 The therapist used a social phobia/panic rating scale measures to ascertain the main problem; this was increasingly difficult as throughout each session the patient expanded on her symptoms. The therapist managed to understand that the patient avoided most social situations due to her beliefs about certain substances; this caused the obsessive hand-washing. This then had an impact on Jane’s ability to go anywhere in case she could not wash herself or objects around her. Jane also believed fainting from blood phobia had the same physical effects as panic, and she would faint if she panicked. It was complicated and the therapist attempted to draw out a formulation. I SEE A PERSON DRINKING ALCOHOL IT’S GOING TO GET ON MY HANDS AND INTO MY MOUTH I FEEL SICK, I’M GOING TO FAINT I FEEL DREAD, I FEEL ANXIOUS, SWEATING I MUST WASH MY HANDS TO STOP THE PANIC GETTING WORSE. Session 4 The formulation shows the extent of Jane’s panic and how her safety behaviours were impacting on all aspects of her life. The therapist attempted again to use information about the causes of anxiety and its effects on the body. The therapist explained what happens when you faint due to blood phobia, this was an attempt to supply Jane with counter evidence for her catastrophic interpretations of her panic. The therapist also used evidence to contrast the effects on the body when fainting and when panicking. After two sessions, the therapist continued to provide and attempted to relay the facts about the nature of anxiety/panic/fainting with the inclusion of behavioural experiments. Educational procedures are a valid part of overall cognitive restructuring strategies, incorporated with questioning evidence for misinterpretations and behavioural experiments (Wells, 1997) The therapist asked Jane to explain to the therapist the function/effects of adrenalin, to see if Jane was beginning to understand and if there had been any shift in her beliefs about panic. The following dialogue may help to illustrate the difficulties the therapist encountered; T. Over the last few sessions, we have been discussing anxiety and the function of adrenalin. Do you understand the physical changes we have looked at? Does it make sense to you? J. Yes. Something has clicked inside my head. I feel less insane now, I understand more about what’s going on. It makes things a little bit easier, but it takes time for it to sink in. T. Do you think you could explain to me what you understand about anxiety/adrenalin? J. As I interpret it is, I like to think of it as, â€Å"I’m not anxious it’s just my adrenalin, It’s just the effects of adrenalin effecting my body† but it’s hard to get from there, to accepting the adrenalin is not going to harm me. I know logically it’s not. But it’s still hard. T. That’s great you’re beginning to question what you have believed and are thinking there may be other explanations for your symptoms. J. Yes. But I still think it’s to do with luck. I have good or bad luck each day and that predicts whether I have a panic or not. I think I’ll be unlucky soon. Session 5-6 The therapist continued to try use behavioural experiments during the sessions to provide further evidence to try to alter Jane’s beliefs about anxiety. The therapist agreed with Jane that they would imitate all the symptoms of panic. Making the room hot, exercising to increase heart rate and body temperature, hyperventilation (ten minutes) Focusing on breathing/swallowing. This continued for most of session 5. As neither the therapist nor Jane fainted, they discussed this and Jane stated it was different in the session than when she with other people. Jane also stated she felt safe and trusted the therapist, she did not believe she could be strong enough to try the experiments alone, as it was â€Å"too scary† The therapist asked Jane to draw a picture of how she felt and put them on the diagram of a person, this then was used to compare with anxiety symptoms, while talking through them with the therapist. The therapist and Jane created a survey about fainting and Jane took this away as homework to gain further evidence. The survey included 6 different questions about fainting e. g. – What people knew about fainting/how they would feel about seeing someone faint, etc. Treatment Outcome The treatment with Jane continues. The next session will be the 6th and there will be a review of progress and any improvements. There has been no improvement in measures as noted yet. The therapist intends to use a panic rating scale (PRS) Wells, (1997) during the next session. The therapist will continue to see Jane for two more sess ions, looking at what Jane has found helpful/unhelpful. Discussion Overall the therapist found the therapy unsuccessful. Although Jane stated she found it helpful, it was difficult for the therapist to see the progress due to the many layers of complexity of Jane’s diagnosis. The therapist has grown more confident in the CBT process and understands that as a trainee, the therapist tried to incorporate all the new skills within each session. The therapist was disappointed that they were unable to guide Jane through the therapy process with a better result. The therapist would have like to have been able to fully establish an understanding of Jane’s complex symptoms earlier on in the therapy. The therapist believes that Jane’s symptoms were very complex and the therapist may have been more successful with a client with a less complicated diagnosis. The therapist would then be able to gain more information via the appropriate measures to enable the formulations in a concise manner. This has been a huge learning curve for the therapist and has encouraged them to seek out continuing CBT supervision within the therapist’s workplace. This is essential to continue the development of the therapist’s skills. The therapist feels that although this has not had the outcome that the therapist would have wanted, it has been a positive experience for Jane. There appeared to be a successful therapeutic relationship, Jane appeared comfortable and able to communicate what her problems were to the therapist from the beginning of therapy. The therapist hopes this will encourage Jane to engage with further CBT therapy in the future and the therapist over the final session hopes to be able to support Jane in creating a therapy blueprint, reviewing what Jane has found helpful. Certificate in CBT September – December 2009 CBT Case Study Panic/Social Phobia/OCD WORD COUNT 3,400 References APA (1994). Diagnostic Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Revised, 4th edn. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association Padesky, C. A Greenberger, D. (1995). Clinicians Guide to Mind Over Mood. New York: Guilford Padesky, C. A Greenberger, D. (1995). Mind Over Mood. New York: Guilford Wells, A (1997). Cognitive Therapy of Anxiety Disorders. Chichester, UK: Wiley

Alexander Fleming Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Alexander Fleming - Essay Example In fact, the advancement of penicillin was a critical occasion in the fight against infectious sicknesses, and the person who uncovered it, Sir Alexander Fleming, remains an important individual in the chronicles of medicinal history. Sir Alexander Fleming was born at Lochfield near Darvel in Ayrshire, Scotland on August 6th, 1881. He went to Louden Moor School, Darvel School, and Kilmarnock Academy before moving to London where he went to the Polytechnic. He spent four years of his early life in a transportation office before attending St. Marys Medical School, London University (Maurois, 1959). Fleming passed with distinction in 1906 and started research at St. Marys under the guidance of Sir Almroth Wright, a pioneer in vaccination. At St Marys Hospital Medical School, he exceeded expectations, rapidly demonstrating his manual expertise and creativeness; to such an extent that for some time it looked as though a future in surgery beckoned until he was attracted to the microorganisms hunting and helpful sleuthing. He finished his degrees at the University of London in 1908, and stayed on at the prestigious Inoculation Laboratory of Almroth Wright. He got M.B., B.S., (London), with Gold Medal in 1908 and turned into a lecturer at St. Marys till 1914. He served all around World War I as a commander in the Army Medical Corps and in 1918 he came back to St.Marys. He was chosen Professor of the School in 1928 and Emeritus Professor of Bacteriology, University of London in 1948. He was chosen Fellow of the Royal Society in 1943 and knighted in 1944 (Maurois, 1959).   In 1915, Fleming got married with Sarah Marion McElroy of Killala, Ireland, who in 1949 died. Their son became a general medical practitioner. In 1953 Fleming got married again; Dr. Amalia Koutsouri-Voureka was his wife, a colleague at St. Marys

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How important are creative thinking skills into Btech National Diploma Art and design Level 1 at one FE college - Essay Example l education focuses on the skills of critical analysis, suggesting creating a logical argument, eliminating the incorrect paths and focusing on the correct one. However, there is another kind of thinking, one that focuses on exploring ideas, generating possibilities, looking for many right answers rather than just one. This kind of thinking takes us to a whole new plane of thoughts and resulting possibilities, which though might seem out of sync with times, might nevertheless be the beacons of light to solving the impending problems. Thus creative thinking has to be seen as a skill crucial to problem solving in any sphere of life. Creative thinking is a skill with what we are all born with but decreases as children are exposed to the environment around them. The social responsibility for bringing about the proper blending of creative thinking and critical thinking which nevertheless has its own merits lies on the shoulders of the education system. The study focuses on the need, importance, motivation, systematic efforts and the gaps therein towards development and application of creative thinking skills in FE colleges in general and the Art and design Diploma course in particular and how does training in Art and design affect creative thinking skills. While assessing the literature on the given topic - Creative thinking Skills, How important are they in BTECH LEVEL1 Diploma of Art and Design? , its important to evaluate what has been written both in terms of the Creative thinking skills as a subject as well as its importance in Further education in general and the Art and Design FE courses in particular. It is important to move from literature pertaining to and supporting ideas from a subjective point of view to the specific area of study. The current thinking and efforts on developing creative skills in FE has its basis in the policy papers and resultant initiatives started in the late nineties. The evolution in the thinking and the efforts as well continues

Research and evaluate one or two works of twentieth-century literary Paper

And evaluate one or two works of twentieth-century literary criticism that take a psychoanalytic approach to Shakespea - Research Paper Example Perhaps some of the most intriguing insights have come as a result of the psychoanalytical school of critical investigation. Sigmund Freud himself analyzed the play advancing a number of theoretical notions on Hamlet’s subconscious and Oedipal relation to his mother. This essay considers ‘The Oedipus-Complex as An Explanation of Hamlet's Mystery:?A Study in Motive’ a famous psychoanalytic interpretation of Hamlet advanced by theorist Ernest Jones and work by Sigmund Freud in analyzing Hamlet. One of Sigmund Freud’s primary theories and a central element of psychoanalysis is the understanding that man is affected by a repressive urge towards love for their mother. Referred to as the Oedipal Complex, Freud indicates that men are then motivated by an urge to murder their father and marry their mother, except this is generally repressed. Hamlet makes a brilliant representation of this theory in action, as Hamlet’s complex relation between his mother and her new-husband, also his step-father, Claudius constitutes a significant element of the play’s narrative structure. This interpretation is not lost on Jones, who argues that in large part Hamlet’s intensity of conflict with Claudius is rooted in these psychological urges. Jones writes, â€Å"Hamlet's second guilty wish had thus also been realized by his uncle, namely to procure the fulfilment of the first -- the possession of the mother -- by a personal deed, in fact by murder of the father† (Jones). In these regards, Claudius has actually usurped and realized Hamlet’s repressed childhood desire, namely the wish to murder his father and marry his mother. It’s believed that the conflict associated with their relationship is then a direct result of this unconscious psychological urges. While Jones argues that a great degree of Hamlet’s actions are motivated by these unconscious Oedipal desires, there remains a number of questions related to t his psychoanalytic examination. One of the predominant questions one wonders is that if Hamlet is so consumed by his desire to marry Gertrude, and Claudius has usurped his ability to accomplish this repressed desire, than why does Hamlet not simply murder Claudius. It’s clear that Hamlet is willing to go to these extremes, yet throughout the play he refrains from this action. In these regards, Jones argues that Freud believes Hamlet’s unwillingness to murder Claudius is related to an unconscious unwillingness. For Jones, if Hamlet were to kill Claudius it would be killing off this unconscious childhood fantasy, and in doing so, it would be in a sense removing an aspect of himself and internal constitution. Freud himself considered this issue and wrote, Hamlet is able to do anything -- except take vengeance on the man who did away with his father and took that father's place with his mother, the man who shows him the repressed wishes of his own childhood realized. Thus the loathing which should drive him on to revenge is replaced in him by self-reproaches, by scruples of conscience, which remind him that he himself is literally no better than the sinner whom he is to punish. Here I have translated into conscious terms what was bound to remain unconscious in Hamlet's mind.... In addition to demonstrating an overriding interpretation for Hamlet’s unwillingness to murder Claudius, this passage from Freud also contributes to interpreting Hamlet’s overall motivations throughout the pla

Impact of Globalisation and Innovation on the Business Operating Coursework

Impact of Globalisation and Innovation on the Business Operating Strategies of International Financial Institutions and Systems- - Coursework Example This has not only increased international trade but has also nurtured human resource development. Thus, the globalization theories set perfect on the principles of â€Å"Ricardo’s Comparative Theory.† Although, globalization has revolutionized today’s world, there exist opponents of this trend. This includes aid organization such as Oxfam and the G77 countries (Investor Words). History of Globalization The Industrial Revolution seemed to sow the seeds of the globalization that was to come years later. The concept of globalization has gone through several ups and downs. The globalization came to an end after the World War 1 when more countries planned on practicing isolationism (Globalization, Encyclopedia of Business). There were several rules and regulations imposed regarding foreign trade and so treaties were signed that assured barriers to foreign trade in the form of duties and tariffs. The Smooth Hawley Tariffs of 1930 is a famous one (Globalization, Encyclo pedia of Business). However, after World War II, Bretton Woods resulted in the formation of World Bank, International Monetary Fund and General Agreements on Tariffs and Trade (Globalization, Encyclopedia of Business). This was the beginning of a new phase of globalization. Later in 1995, GATT was replaced by World Trade Organization that has the main motive of globalization and inculcates in trade in goods, services with the added benefit of an efficient dispute settlement system (Globalization, Encyclopedia of Business). Other trade blocs such as EU, SAARC and agreements such as NAFTA have come into the scene. Financial Globalization and Innovation Over the past two decades some very pronounced changes in the world financial system have been witnessed. All the financial markets of the world have become a complex network woven in a well knitted canopy. The liberalization policy has increased opportunities and varieties all over the globe. Privatization has been on an increase. Addi tionally, new hedging tools such as derivative instruments have been introduced against markets and credit related risks (Chernobai, Rachev & Fabozzi , 2007). Securitization has been adopted as means of trading as well (Chernobai, Rachev & Fabozzi , 2007). The most prominent example of trade liberalization is the European Union. The adoption of a single currency Euro and the inter bloc tariff free trade has empowered the position of the bloc and the currency as well. Financial integration is a similar process by which a strong integrated complex network of financial markets is developed. However, the rule of one price should prevail in these kinds of market which means that the risk-adjusted real return should equalize (Gudmundsson, 2007). The manifestation of globalization is the elimination of concentration of a particular/own country and an increase in cross-border activities. This would include capital investment in cross border projects, investment in assets and liabilities as well as an increase in banking and FDI (Gudmundsson, 2007). There have been certain implications well. According to Gudmundsson (2007), the global integration of the financial markets has not provided insurance against idiosyncratic shocks. Moreover, it has been concluded that due to the volatile nature of the capital stock due to asymmetric information, it has been more a source of shock rather than smoothing. There remain many repercussions of these integrated markets. Due to this increased trend outsourcing, expansion of

The quality of collective action will determine the quality of results Essay

The quality of collective action will determine the quality of results - Essay Example All these stakeholders have individual roles to play in ensuring that the aims of education are achieved. However, to ensure quality education, these stakeholders do not just have to work in isolation but then have to work collectively. Elaborating how stakeholders can work collectively, Kodua (2001) posits that curriculum planners must understand the immediate educational aims of educational administrators and the learning requirements of learners and structure the curriculum in such a way that it meets these educational aims. The educational managers must in response ensure that all infrastructure and resources needed for the smooth running of education are supplied. Still working together, teachers must ensure that they deliver quality student-centered and interactive lessons that would ensure that learning becomes easier for students. On the part of supervisors, they must ensure that they monitor and assess the performance and delivery of teachers whiles students do everything po ssible to grasp lessons taught. It is only under such circumstance where the general aim of education is made to run through the delivery of education among all stakeholders that we can be assured of quality of collective action.

Sacred Rite - Roman Catholic Christian Sacramental Worship Research Paper

Sacred Rite - Roman Catholic Christian Sacramental Worship - Research Paper Example This paper will discuss the sacred rites around the Catholic Christian worship. Catholic catechism helps it followers understand the deep mysteries of the Church. It purports to be the only church left by Jesus Christ, and they state this in the creed the decreed the church as one, holy, Catholic and apostolic. To Catholics, a sacrament is a sacred procedure through which God uses to express his grace to humankind. In addition, sacraments depict Gods presence. Before Jesus Christ left earth, Catholics believe he celebrated seven sacraments, which they hold dear in their faith. These include baptism, confirmation Eucharist, penance, anointing of the sick, matrimony, and religious orders. Eucharist is a vital sacrament that holds most of the Catholic faith. They believe that it completes a new believer’s initiation to the church. It is the only sacrament that is celebrated daily as Catholic faithful congregate for their prayers that they call â€Å"mass.† Eucharistic sacrifice includes prayers, reading parts of the bible, singing of hymns, and priests present. The wheat and wine in some peculiar glasses are lifted to God, and the priest chants some words to invite God to do the transformation. After these prayers, Christians partake of the bread as the body of Jesus and wine as the blood of Jesus. In this, they celebrate his death and resurrection on the cross, which they believe to have washed their original sin caused by Adam and Eve. Not all Catholic Christians participate in the Eucharist in a celebration. Eucharist is sacred and therefore, Christians living in sin will not partake of it. Such Christians include married couples who did not have their union blessed in church and people who have not gone for atonement for some time and thus have accumulated sins. In the Catholic faith, ordination to the priesthood is a sacrament on its own. Every Christian has the right to choose to marry or spend a celibate life.  

Websites Evaluation Exercise Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Websites Evaluation Exercise - Assignment Example This website (http://www.adidas.com/com/) provides accurate information on its: authorship, contact details, credentials and support organizations under authority; organization and focus, appropriate links to outside sites, and relevant contents under purpose; both selective and comprehensive navigation options, comprehensive illustrations, and satisfying details of the items under coverage; currency in terms of items’ updates i.e. latest arrivals in the market; clear, precise and complete pieces of information for the purpose of the site’s objectivity; and finally it provides reliable, accurate, correct and satisfying content on each and every item. In support of the key characteristics that facilitate Adidas portal’s effectiveness in its roles in business as illustrate above, here are the explanations. This site is basically for the purpose of advertisements, marketing and sale of Adidas manufacturing company’s products only. Meaning that, their objective is to provide authentic, accurate, comprehensive/ complete coverage and authoritative details about their products for the main purposes of achieving the goal and objective as a business organization. Being a business organization, they have to compete with other companies and organizations which providing similar products, and at a

General Economic Indices for the Power Tool Market Essay Example for Free

General Economic Indices for the Power Tool Market Essay In assessing the power tool industries, it can be found that there are several general economic indices which have are important in assessing the viability of the industry. There are four of these which could be assessed for the purpose of the Able Corporation as they pursue their goals with their products. These four general economic indices include housing starts, expenditures for residential construction, expenditures for commercial construction, and expenditures for home repairs and improvement. First, the housing start statistics which have become relevant to the industry â€Å"represent the beginning of the construction of new privately owned single-family homes, townhouses, and multifamily apartment buildings† (Frumkin, 2005, p. 132). Moreover, it excludes infrastructures for housing which fall under mobile homes, group quarters, public housing properties, renovations made to existing houses, and converted housing from non-residential to residential housing (Frumkin, 2005). From the historical data presented from the US Census Bureau, there is an erratic trend that can be seen from the year 2004 to 2008. However, it is apparent that there is a continuous decrease from the year 2005 up to the 2008 leaving the year 2004 as the only exception. The respective values for each year are 1,955,800 for the year 2004; 2,068,300 for the year 2005; 1,800,900 for the year 2006; 1,355,000 for the year 2007; and 905,500 for the year 2008 (â€Å"New Privately Owned,† n. d. ). From the trend shown, it is made apparent that the housing units which have been started are becoming lower every year from the US data. Second, there are also relevant data which are made available for the expenditures which are placed for residential repairs and improvement. This type of data shows the amount of money that has been used for the purpose of improving the residential places for purposes of repairs and improvement. For the year 2003, the data shows that $179,700,000,000 has been spent on the first quarter, $173,200,000,000 has been spent on the second quarter, $187,400,000 has been spent on the third quarter, and $166,700,000,000 has been spent on the fourth quarter (US Census Bureau News, 2008). On the other hand, there are costs of $198,900,000,000 for the first quarter, $192,600,000,000 for the second quarter, $202,100,000,000 for the third quarter, and $200,500,000,000 for the fourth quarter (US Census Bureau News, 2008). For the year 2005, the respective value for the first to fourth quarters are $213,600,000,000 $192,800,000,000, $220,900,000,000 and $235,500,000,000 (US Census Bureau News, 2008). For the year 2006, the values for the respective four quarters are $232,200,000,000, $225,000,000,000, $231,000,000,000, and $226,000,000,000 (US Census Bureau News, 2008). As for the year 2007, the value for the first to the fourth quarter is $230,900,000,000, $227,700,000,000, $213,200,000,000, and $236,600,000,000 (US Census Bureau News, 2008). From these values, it is shown that the expenditures for each quarter and across the years are increasing such that there has been more cost spent for this on the latest years of the historical data. Third, the report of the US Census Bureau also shows that there are also expenditures for residential construction which can be studied from the year 2003 to 2007. For the year 2003, the total expenditure is $705,276,000,000. The succeeding values are: $803,305,000,000 for 2004, $897,989,000,000 for 2005, $937,047,000,000 for the year 2006, and $875,010,000,000 for the year 2007 (â€Å"Construction and housing,† 2009). While the trend shows that here is a constant increase from the year 2003 to the year 2006, there is a sudden plunge for 2007 which can be accounted to several economic factors that prohibit the construction of new residential infrastructures. Fourth, there is also an economic index available for expenditures on nonresidential units, which is also taken from the US Census Bureau. From the year 2003 to 2007, the respective values are $229,335,000,000, $238,478,000,000, $256,644,000,000, $295,715,000,000, and $349,566,000,000 (â€Å"Construction and housing,† 2009). From these data, it can be observed that there is a continuous increase in the amount spent for the purpose of construction nonresidential units. In relation to the power tool market, these economic general indices are considered to be important because of the role it plays in terms of the demand for power tools which are required for construction. The housing start data would dictate how many new power tools may be required together with the amount of expenditures that are seen to be used for improvements and construction of new infrastructures. The fact that power tools are considered to be a necessity for the construction and repair of housing and nonresidential units relates this industry to the construction of housing and nonresidential ones. During cases where there are disparities, it is important to note that these general economic indices will be of great help only when accuracy is present. However, when there are cases where it is difficult to see which of the current findings are accurate, there should be information from other related economic factors that come from the government which could be a reliable source of data. Thus, it can be seen that there are several factors which affect the power tool market considering the economic relations it has with the construction industry. There are several ways through which the economic forecasts for the power tool industry can be obtained in relation to the construction data. References Frumkin, N. (2005). Guide to economic indicators (4th Ed. ). Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe. Newly Privately Owned Housing Units Started. (n. d. ). Retrieved April 23, 2009, from http://www. census. gov/const/startsan. pdf. Section 20: Construction and housing. (2009). Retrieved April 23, 2009, from http://www. census. gov/prod/2008pubs/09statab/construct. pdf. US Census Bureau News. (2008). Expenditures for improvements and repairs of residential properties estimated at $226. 4 Billion in 2007. Retrieved April 23, 2009, from http://www. census. gov/const/c50_curr. pdf.

Obama Immigration Reform Essay Example for Free

Obama Immigration Reform Essay Currently, 11 million illegal immigrants inhabit the United States. This number will continue to augment without proper regulation of these aliens. Ever since his first inauguration, it has been President Barack Obama’s mission to improve America’s mediocre immigration system. Since Obama’s reelection for his second term, he has constantly stressed the fact that the new ideas for immigration reform are on the top of his list. Not only will these new reclaims help both the legal and illegal immigrants, and American citizens, but also they will benefit the US economy. It has been a controversial argument whether Obama’s reform ideas will either positively or negatively affect the US economy, but according to the bipartisan group of democrats and republicans, it is agreed that the positives greatly outweigh the negatives. After the bipartisan meeting on January 28th, 2013, in which both parties’ principles were announced for comprehensive immigration reform (CNN Political Unit, CNN. com), Obama presented a speech on January 29th, 2013, which consisted of numerous solutions to the troubled immigration system presently used in the United States. This speech not only contained these ideas, but also his plan of action to pursue them during his next four years in office. Obama proved to America that he would attempt to fulfill these reforms as soon as possible by saying, â€Å"It is time to fix the system that has been broken for way too long,† (CNN Political Unit, CNN. com). The first, and arguably the most imperative, immigrant reform plan is to strengthen the US-Mexico border’s security, strictly correlating with illegal immigrant crossings. Since Obama has been in office, the number of illegal crossings has shrunk down to about 80% from their peak in 2000 (CNN Political Unit, CNN. com). Some specific methods that are considered being used to strengthen the US-Mexico border are: increase protection and number of border patrol agents, add 350 miles of fencing, add 290 miles of vehicle barriers, invest in more cameras and radar towers, and finally, end the â€Å"Catch Release† Policy (USA Immigration Reform, USAimmigrationreform. org). Secondly, Obama desires to increase the enforcement efforts on illegal immigrant criminals who endanger the country’s communities. Thankfully, with Obama in office, the deportation of undocumented criminals is at its highest level than it has ever been before (CNN Political Unit, CNN. com). The third angle for this project is to reinforce the already-formed DREAM Act, which stands for â€Å"Development, Relief and Education for Alien Minors. † The main purpose of this addition to the bill of reforms is so the minors that travelled with their parents or guardians over the border (in this case, they are not responsible for being an illegal alien) are ensured opportunity, safety, and equal rights (Zuckerman-Bernstein, policymic. om). Providing conditional permanent residency to certain illegal minors of good moral character who graduate from high schools in the United States is the platform of this act (CNN Political Unit, CNN. com). The fourth contribution in Obama’s speech discussed worksite enforcement. It is strongly suggested that we implement a new national system that enables businesses to rapidly and accurately verify one’s employment status, and even more emphasized, heighten and ramp up the penalties deserved by the businesses that still hire illegally (CNN Political Unit, CNN. om). Actions to be accounted for in this effort are: moderating the number of documents accepted to verify identity and work eligibility, ensuring that all workers must hold legal status in the United States, increasing the fines and consequences for those continually hiring illegal workers, and lastly, to surge investigation of these employers (USA Immigration Reform, USAimmigrationreform. org). This topic is a bit more accentuated because the employment of illegal workers generates an unbalanced and unfair workplace for American citizens. The companies that hire illegally create a battlefield for companies that do proceed to follow the law and pay decent wages, causing those of which to suffer. Not only are these loyal companies and businesses affected, but also is a majority of general working Americans. Their wages and working conditions are threatened, but Obama demands to protect each worker’s rights and clarifies this motion by stating,† We will make sure that every worker and business in America is playing the same set of rules,† (CNN Political Unit, CNN. com). The fifth input could hold the most considerable amount of influence on illegal immigrants currently living in America, and for those who wish to come to America legally but unfortunately have a hard time doing so. Obama’s idea of laying out a pathway to citizenship has caught the eyes and ears of many. This pathway consists of various forms of tests and agreements that attain to both present illegal immigrants and legal ones wishing to move, such as: a background check, paying taxes, learning English, paying a penalty upon illegal entry and getting in back of the line behind the people who have waited to arrive legally (illegals only). Obama claims this is only fair (CNN Political Unit, CNN. com). There will be a revised naturalization test, with a focus on American democracy, US history, and what is expected of a US citizen. Also, a rise of immigrant coach training will help applicants through the immigration process. Finally, it’s planned to enhance the development of web-based learning tools to increase English language skills (USA Immigration Reform, USAimmigrationreform. org). Congress stresses that this pathway to citizenship is mainly focused on the 11 million undocumented aliens in America, but it is equally vital to deal with future immigrants, as well, or the country may find itself housing more illegals and not progressing to a better America (Fox News, The Associated Press, foxnews. com). Lastly, Obama’s final aspiration is to break our old fashioned system and bring it to the 21st century. The president’s opinion about visa card laws was that they are â€Å"outdated† and â€Å"make no sense,† (Fox News, The Associated Press, foxnews. com). He hopes to join family members with those who have come to earn a living already and to avoid the prolonged wait of future immigrants. Having to wait years before being able to send one’s family to America is absurd to the President and surely to a majority of others (CNN Political Unit, CNN. com). These plans, ideas, and desires for a higher quality national immigration system will be assorted into a bill. Witnesses largely appealed to congress’ disposition to pass the bill because not only will this bill ameliorate the lives of immigrants and their families, but also the US economy (Fox News, The Associated Press, foxnews. om). Correspondingly, there is a plethora of reasons why a substantial immigration reform would positively impact the US economy. To begin, immigrants start businesses. The Small Business Administration says immigrants are 30% more likely to start a business compared to a native, and 18% of small business owners today are immigrants (Gray, Furman, thewhitehouse. gov). In addition, this reform would create an annual increase of 0. 8% points to the economic growth rate, presently stuck at a frustrating 2% (CBN News, CBN. com). Additional boosts to the economic growth could potentially come from rising wages for newly legalized workers and higher productivity levels from the arrival of new, highly-skilled workers from abroad (Krudy, NBCnews. com). To even further express the benefit of immigration reform, just in 2008, the Congressional Budget Office projected an acquired $48 billion in revenue from 2008-2017, simply caused by a more efficient, modernized national immigration system (Krudy, NBCnews. com). Continuing on from the point above, immigrant-owned businesses create jobs for Americans. The Fiscal Policy Institute stated that small businesses owned by immigrants employed about 4. 7 million people in 2007. These businesses generated over $776 billion annually. With this statistic, it only makes sense to assume that this ratio will continually grow in the future since more businesses will be started. Also, the Center of American Progress affirmed that comprehensive immigration reform would create jobs 900,000 people got jobs within 3 years from the increase of immigrant consumer spending (Gray, Furman, thewhitehouse. ov). Yes, immigrants will aid the US in creating jobs for its native citizens, but it is also true that immigrants are more likely to create their own jobs as well. The Department of Labor claimed that 7. 5% of foreign born people in the United States are self-employed, while only 6. 6% of native born are self-employed (Gray, Furman, thewhitehouse. gov). Immigrants are also a great contributor to the economy because they have and probably will continue t o create cutting-edge technology and companies. Big businesses like Google, Yahoo, Intel and eBay were all produced with the help of immigrants, and 25% of public US companies were started by them (Gray, Furman, thewhitehouse. gov). Alone, these booming businesses create an influx of earnings for the American economy. The earnings developed from these businesses wouldn’t reach their full potential without the help of immigrants. Between 1990 and 2004, an accession of immigration correlated with increased earnings of about 0. 7% annually, recorded from studies at University of California (Gray, Furman, thewhitehouse. ov). Oddly enough, it is proven that immigrants earn greater degrees than non-immigrants. Surprisingly, with all of America’s exceptional education programs, only 16% of the resident population holds a bachelor’s degree. Immigrants represent 33% of America’s engineers, 27% of mathematicians, statisticians, and computer scientists, and 34% of physical scientists (Gray, Furman, thewhitehouse. gov). Another reason to implement this bill immediately is because reform legislation would reduce the deficit. The nonpartisan Congressional Budget Office says that if the 2010 version of the DREAM Act was used, the federal deficit would be abated $2. 2 trillion over a course of 10 years because of accumulated tax revenues (Gray, Furman, thewhitehouse. gov). The consensus among economists said the new reform would maximize housing demand, encourage entrepreneurship, and raise tax revenues, which in total would sufficiently aid the budget deficit (CBN News, CBNnews. com). So basically, the consensus among economists has determined immigration reform as a net benefit. Economist Giovanni Peri plans to utilize a â€Å"cap-and-trade† visa system, which would induce a profit of $1. 2 billion a year (Krudy, NBCnews. com). Finally, immigration reform would increase America’s gross domestic product. The nonpartisan Congressional Budget Office asserted that even under low investment assumptions, immigration reform would raise the GDP by 0. 8%-1. 3% from 2012-2016 (Gray, Furman, thewhitehouse. gov). As one can see, President Barack Obama has put forth a much needed effort in the mission to create a noteworthy national immigration system. With all of these fair and effective plans and ideas, not one foreigner should have to think twice about becoming an American citizen, considering it is for the benefit of themselves, their family, the United States and its economy. The National Council of La Raza, the League of United Latin American Citizens, and the International Secretary of the Service Employees International Union, all of these tied in with immigration policies, issued a joint statement saying â€Å"The time to act is now,† (Zuckerman-Bernstein, policymic. com).

Enron Scandal: Impact on Accounting

Enron Scandal: Impact on Accounting Accounting for Enron 1. Why is accounting being blamed for the losses sustained by investors as a result of the collapse of Enron? Is this criticism fair and do financial accounting and reporting practices need to be reformed? Accounting has been blamed for the losses sustained by Enron, as it allowed the company to hide details of its dealings from its investors, until the company’s financial situation was so bad that the firm was forced to go bankrupt almost overnight. Enron’s downfall has been characterised as â€Å"excessive interest by management in maintaining stock price or earnings trend through the use of unusually aggressive accounting practices.† (Healy, 2003) As part of this, Enron used â€Å"‘mark-to-market accounting’ for the energy trading business in the mid-1990s and used it on an unprecedented scale for its trading transactions.† (Thomas, 2002) Under mark-to-market accounting practices, companies with outstanding derivative contracts or purchases on their balance sheets when accounts are being prepared must adjust them to â€Å"fair market value† (Thomas, 2002) As a result, predicted long term gains or losses on these contract are applied to the company’s profits immediately, similar to depreciation, or asset write downs. The main difficulty encountered when doing this for long-term futures contracts in energy markets is that â€Å"there are often no quoted prices upon which to base valuations. Companies having these types of derivative instruments are free to develop and use discretionary valuation models based on their own assumptions and methods, as Enron did.† (Healy, 2003) Another accounting technique Enron used to hide significant debts was the use of special purpose entities (SPEs), which Enron took to â€Å"new heights of complexity and sophistication, capitalizing them with not only a variety of hard assets and liabilities, but also extremely complex derivative financial instruments, its own restricted stock, rights to acquire its stock and related liabilities.† (Thomas, 2002) Enron also used these SPEs to hide details of assets which were excessively declining in value, thus avoiding having losses from asset write down and depreciation charges on the company books. This practice was applied to â€Å"certain overseas energy facilities, the broadband operation or stock in companies that had been spun off to the public.† (Thomas, 2002) The accounting treatments around SPEs meant that the losses sustained on these asset write downs would not appear on Enron’s accounts. Enron promised share issues to the investors in the SPEs to co mpensate them for taking these assets on but, as the value of the assets fell even further, Enron found itself unable to meet these commitments from share issues. These creative accounting techniques began to be suspected by investors in October 2001, when Enron several new businesses failed to perform as well as expected. Enron was hoping these new businesses would cover its losses on the SPEs but, in October 2001 the company was forced to announce a major series of write-downs of its own assets, including â€Å"after tax charges of $2.87 million for Azurix, the water business acquired in 1998, $180 million for broadband investments and $544 million for other investments.† (Healy, 2003) These write downs amounted to twenty two percent of the capital spent by Enron on developing its business between 1998 and 2000. In addition, Enron sold Portland General Corp., the electric power plant it had acquired in 1997, for $1.9 billion, at a loss of $1.1 billion over the acquisition price. (Healy, 2003) The losses incurred as a result of this caused investors to question whether Enron’s strategy was feasible in the long tem, and in market s other than derivatives. In summary, whilst the accounting concepts and strategy underlying the gas derivatives trading was a reasonable attempt to produce value for investors, â€Å"extensions of this idea into other markets and international expansion were unsuccessful.† (Healy, 2003) However, whilst the mark to market and SPE accounting techniques used by the company helped hide this fact from investors, the stock markets as a whole were guilty of â€Å"largely ignored red flags associated with Enrons spectacular reported performance† (Thomas, 2002). This aided and, in the eyes of the management at Enron, vindicated the company’s expansion strategy by allowing Enron access to plenty of capital cheaply and easily. As such, accounting cannot be entirely blamed for the losses sustained by investors, as the investors themselves simply assumed that the value Enron appeared to be generating â€Å"would be sustained far into the future, despite little economic basis for such a projection.â €  (Thomas, 2002) As a result, whilst accounting made it easier for Enron to mislead its investors, the facts show that investors themselves were more concerned with Enron’s reported profits and growth, than analysing the roots causes and business model. 2. Does it matter what accounting policies are adopted by a company as long as they are adequately disclosed? A â€Å"very confusing footnote in Enrons 2000 financial statements† (Thomas, 2002) described the transactions in question one, however according to analysts, â€Å"most people would be hard pressed to understand the effects of these disclosures on the financial statements, casting doubt on both the quality of the companys earnings as well as the business purpose of the transaction.† (Thomas, 2002) By early 2001, several market analysts had begun to question the clarity and transparency of Enron’s disclosures. One analyst was quoted as saying, â€Å"The notes just dont make sense, and we read notes for a living.† (Thomas, 2002) Enron publicly denounced and abused these analysts however, because of these actions, investors began to view Enron’s accounting policies, and disclosures, with greater and greater scepticism. Indeed, despite the fact that Enron’s disclosures were adequate in the regulatory framework, they were still not in the spirit of managerial responsibility to shareholders. In another example of inadequate disclosure policies, Satava et al (2003) examined the celebrated Royal Mail Case and the implications of the case for the accounting practice today. Satava’s arguments claimed that the case was â€Å"not about the utilization of secret reserves, but about the non-disclosure of repayments by the Inland Revenue of over provisions for tax, and that defence counsel for the auditor succeeded because of the weak factual case presented by the prosecution.† (Satave et al, 2003) In summary, the duty of accountants to adequately disclose their accounting policies can often conflict with attempts by the same accountants to use these policies to benefit the company. As a result, these conflicts of interest often result in only materially adequate disclosures of substandard accounting policies. 3. To what extent did Enron use off balance-sheet financing in its operations? Were these transactions appropriately treated and adequately disclosed in the financial statements of the company? What consequences did the accounting treatment of these transactions have for Enron and its investors? The main way Enron used off balance sheet financing was in its extensive use of SPEs to give it ready access to finance without having to report any debts it incurred in its accounts. The company contributed assets, and debt secured against those assets, to an SPE in exchange for control of the SPE, and the SPEs then borrowed large amounts of capital which was used to finance Enron, without any debt or assets showing up in Enron’s accounts. Enron also sold assets to the SPEs at above market value, and thus reported profits on these sales. Enron used huge numbers of SPEs in this way, the most well known of which were LJM Cayman LP and LJM2 Co-Investment LP. â€Å"From 1999 through July 2001, these entities paid Enron managers more than $30 million in management fees, far more than their Enron salaries, supposedly with the approval of top management and Enrons board of directors.† (Healy, 2003) The SPEs in turn created yep more SPEs, known as the Raptor vehicles, which enabled Enron to invest heavily in a bankrupt broadband company, Rhythm NetConnections, during the dotcom boom. To finance this investment Enron made a share issue worth $1.2 billion. However, in order to complete this deal, Enron increased shareholders’ equity to reflect this transaction, which has been claimed to violate accounting standards and principles. Additionally, accounting rules actually meant that Enron should have included information from the LJM and Raptor SPEs in their accounts, rather than continue to use them as off balance sheet financing. (Healy, 2003) In addition to these minor violations, Enron revealed in October 2001 that several other SPEs had violated the accounting standard that required at least 3 percent of the entities to be owned by other investors, with no interest in the parent company. Again, by ignoring this requirement, Enron kept the financing it obtained from these entities off its balance sheet, enabling it to understate its liabilities and losses on this source of financing. However, on October 16, 2001, Enron announced that â€Å"restatements to its financial statements for years 1997 to 2000 to correct these violations would reduce earnings for the four-year period by $613 million (or 23 percent of reported profits dating the period), increase liabilities at the end of 2000 by $628 million (6 percent of reported liabilities and 5.5 percent of reported equity) and reduce equity at the end of 2000 by $1.2 billion (10 percent of reported equity).† (Thomas, 2002) In addition to the accounting failures, Enron only disclosed the minimum amount of details on its investments in the SPEs, and the amount of financing it had gained from them. The company claimed that it had hedged some of its investments using special purpose entities, but failed to inform investors that Enron shares were being used as part of this hedge. Moreover, Enron allowed several of its senior managers, including its chief financial officer Andrew Fastow, to become partners of the special purpose entities. Thus, these employees were able to make large amounts of profit, in both cash and shares, from the off balance sheet financing provided by companies they partly owned. (Thomas, 2002) This was a clear failure to fulfil their fiduciary responsibility to Enrons stockholders, and contributed to the extent of the company’s downfall. 4. Would similar treatment of off balance-sheet transactions be permissible in the UK? Tollington (2001) is one of the foremost academics claiming that financial accounts no longer provide a true and accurate representation of the value of a business, due to the widening between the values accounting policies place on assets, and the market values of said assets. His paper argues that â€Å"the definitional requirement for ‘transactions or events’ appears to restrict their recognition,† and therefore disclosure on balance sheets, which enables similar off balance sheet transactions in the UK. Equally, ‘white-collar crime’ has massively increased in recent years, with some estimates stating that over half a trillion pounds of criminal proceedings are laundered through the world’s financial markets each year. (Mitchell et al, 1998) The majority of this is moved in large quantities, and this cannot be done successfully without willing accountants, who can use creative accounting to hide any money laundering outside the scope of company accounts. However, new money laundering regulations mean that accountants, and related professionals, are now supposed to report any fraud or money laundering wherever they find it, and this applies as much to illegal activity the UK as to anywhere else. Whilst securitization, which incorporates the use of SPEs for off-balance-sheet financing, has been extensively reviewed in recent years, there are still concerns over the extent to which off balance sheet financing can be abused, both in the UK and abroad. The International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) and the US Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) recently introduced new standards, and modified their existing standards, in order to more rigorously define the acceptable accounting treatments for securities. (Satava et al, 2003) Whilst some accountant and analysts are still hoping to move towards a single, global, set of accounting standards, this is likely to take several times. Other jurisdictions are also keen to create a globally accepted set of standards, and in the UK the Accounting Standards Board (ASB) is converging with International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS), commonly referred to as IAS, to minimise the extent to which off balance sheet financing can be practiced. Two other factors have combined with the restructuring of financial and other industries in a way that has placed additional stress on the corporate governance function, and off balance sheet transactions: greater complexity of business structures and greater emphasis on stock prices. In the last decade or so, business has experienced a surge of fluid organizational arrangements as well as a routinisation of complex transactions, with alliances, joint ventures, multifaceted sale arrangements and hybrid, structured finance arrangements becoming commonplace. (Monks and Minow, 2003) The net effect is the economic boundaries of the firm have become ambiguous and extremely fluid, a phenomenon reflected in the wonderfully euphemistic phrase â€Å"off balance-sheet financing,† where the firm structures transactions and relationships to avoid their explicit recognition in traditional accounting displays. A typical example is a firm that holds a portfolio of mortgages. It places the po rtfolio in a free-standing legal entity with distinctly limited scope, a Special Purpose Entity, but continues the transaction processing and possibly provides credit enhancements. In different variations, inventory, research and development or even rights to future revenue cash flows are parked in Special Purpose Entities (Griffiths, 1995). Reporting regulations allow the Special Purpose Entity to be kept off of the firms formal financial statements; as long as it is disclosed, provided substantive risk has been shifted to an independent third party. (Nelson, 2003) General Electric, an aggressive purveyor of these arrangements, for example, reports sponsored Special Purpose Entities with assets in excess of $50 billion in its 2001 financial report. The â€Å"independent third party† must have (among other things) a minimum of 3 percent ownership of the Special Purpose Entity’s equity and debt, although the Financial Accounting Standards Board in the US has recently tightened these requirements to resemble that of the UK. (Demski, 2003) However, Special Purpose Entities are only one aspect of this wave of organizational and financial innovation. This greater degree of complexity has interacted with a corporate governance environment that has been placing heightened emphasis on shareholder value (Nelson, 2003), including an explosion in the use of option-based compensation. A substantial portion of the greater complexity appears to be motivated by a concern for financial presentation, for example, â€Å"beautifying† ones balance sheet In some cases, the effect may be as simple as a matter of timing: for instance, the timing of selected expenditures and shipments can affect current period financial results, just as can the time at which a sale is formally booked or a loan is consummated. With the assistance of hybrid financial and organizational transactions, a lease can be structured so it does, or does not, show up on the lessees balance sheet, thereby affecting the total debt that a firm reports, through other methods than off-balance sheet financing. However, fundamentally, Enron, used Special Purpose Entities to di sguise significant amounts of debt as commodity prepay transactions. Through a series of circular or round-trip prepaid transactions, this Special Purpose Entity was the centerpiece in â€Å"allowing† Enron to borrow money but to record the amount borrowed as cash generated by operations, because prepaid commodity contracts are generally booked as trades, not loans, a distinction which would have been clearer in the UK (Deminski, 2003). 5. Are principle based types of accounting standard like FRS 5 more effective in dealing with accounting abuses than the more rule based standards of the US? Although the foundation of financial accounting and auditing has traditionally been based upon a rule based framework, the concept of a principle based approach has been periodically advocated since being incorporated into the AICPA Code of Conduct in 1989. Enron and similar events indicated that the accountants and auditors involved have followed rule based ethical perspectives, however these rule based standards have failed to protect investors from accounting abuses. Satava et al (2003) thus described how â€Å"rule based traditions of auditing became a convenient vehicle that perpetuated the unethical conduct of firms such as Enron and Arthur Andersen.† They presented a model of ten ethical perspectives and briefly described how these ten ethical perspectives impact rule based and principle based ethical conduct for accountants and auditors, concluding by identifying six specific suggestions that the accounting and auditing profession should consider to restore public trus t and to improve the ethical conduct of accountants and auditors. Their conclusions showed that principle based standards were less open to abuses that rule based standards, provided the principles were well defined. Indeed, the publication of a recent amendment to Financial Reporting Standards (FRS) 5 by Great Britains Accounting Standards Board, sought to clarify how to account for SPEs and similar entities, with emphasis on how the principles of the FRS 5 will apply to transactions conducted with these entities. Accountancy (2004) claimed that by publishing an amendment to FRS 5, the United Kingdom Accounting Standards Board was attempting to stop the flow of off balance sheet accounting, despite concerns expressed surrounding the amended FRS 5. The article provided information on an amendment to FRS 5, â€Å"Reporting the Substance of Transactions†, namely the addition of â€Å"Application Note G, Revenue Recognition†. The note has been prepared in response to the need for clarity in respect to questions that arise concerning the treatment of revenue and, in particular, the treatment of turnover. The amendment was published as an Exposure Draft in February 2003 for public comment and, in finalizing the document; the Accounting Standards Board took into consideration the comments received in response to the draft and has consulted interested parties. In FRS 5, in the list of contents immediately preceding the summary, the list of Application Notes is extended by adding at the end, G Revenue Recognition and sets out basic principles of transaction and revenue recognition which should be applied in all cases This thus has increased the extent to which the principle based accountancy legislation in the UK can control the extent of off balance sheet transactions, and correspondingly increased the necessary amount of disclosure. (Accountancy, 2004) However, it has been argued by some theorists that the reform efforts may have been unwise (Culp and Nickanen, 2003), due to a need to recognise that accounting is retrospective, and Enron’s problems were evident to investors if they used more forward looking information. The share price was declining long before the disclosures, quick surveys of four issues: the state of wholesale electric markets before and after Enron, the state of regulation of wholesale electric markets before and after Enron, online trading before and after Enron, and whether swaps need regulation, shows that accounting abuses must still have an underlying business reason. It has also been argued that Enrons use of special entities for off-balance-sheet financing is a perversion of a useful, and often appropriate, accounting technique and such perversions can equally be applied to other techniques under principle-based standards. Equally, it has been recognised that the latitude inherent in principles, or concepts, based standards can be a double-edged sword. â€Å"Such latitude allows managers to choose accounting treatments that reflect their informed understanding of the underlying economics of transactions.† (Nelson, 2003) This latitude, however, also permits managers to â€Å"advocate reporting treatments that do not reflect the underlying economics of a transaction.† (Maines et al, 2003) Both managers and accountants must have strong ethical principles in order for their accounting under principle based standards to reflect the true value of their business, especially in difficult times Both the SEC and the Auditing Standards Board in America support this view with their focus on the quality, as opposed to simply the acceptability, of financial reporting, as well as placing strong emphasis on â€Å"the need for expert judgment and unbiased reporting† (Maines et al, 2003) Concepts-based standards have the potential to promote the financial reporting goals of the regulatory bodies in ways that rules-based standards cannot. However, in order for this to happen, individuals must possess a conceptual framework for financial information in order to use this information appropriately in decision making. Principle-based standards reflect a more consistent application of conceptual framework, and thus enhance individuals’ understanding of the frameworks. Thus, a concepts based approach is consistent with the FASBs stated goal to â€Å"improve the common understanding of the nature and purposes of information contained in financial reports.† (Maines et al, 2003) Also, principle-based standards are consistent with the stated goal of the FASB to promote convergence of accounting standards worldwide. The European Commission has recently proposed that the U.S. abandon GAAP in favour of the more flexible IAS, which emphasizes ‘substance over form’ in auditors inspection of the accounts. (Ampofo and Sellani, 2005) As a result, a concepts-based approach likely will lead to greater agreement in standard setting between the FASB and IASB and thus will also promote international harmonization. (Maines et al, 2003) 6. What has been the overall impact on corporate reporting of Enron and other recent financial scandals? The events surrounding the demise of Enron have led to corporate reporting procedures being called into question all over the world. It resulted in critics questioning how adequate the disclosure legislation was at the time, and also to query how a major accounting firm could conduct independent audits of a firm they were engaged in major consulting work for, when the audit fees were tiny in comparison to the consulting fees. The â€Å"scandal threatened to undermine confidence in financial markets in the United States and abroad; and the accounting profession and regulatory bodies were forced to act.† (Swartz, 2005) In a characteristic move, the SEC and the public accounting profession were among the first to respond to the Enron crisis. In a piece for the Wall Street Journal, the SEC Chairman Harvey Pitt called the outdated reporting and financial disclosure system the financial â€Å"perfect storm.† (Thomas, 2002) He stated that â€Å"under the quarterly and annual reporting system in place at the time, information was often stale on arrival and mandated financial disclosures were often, ‘arcane and impenetrable’† (Thomas, 2002) In order to reassure investors and restore confidence in financial reporting, Pitt called for â€Å"a joint response from the public and private sectors to strengthen regulations and prevent a recurrence of these events.† (Thomas, 2002) As a result, since the Enron debacle, the global corporate reporting regulators were quick to move to stem the rising tide of public interest against their profession, displaying the banner â€Å"Enron: The AICPA, the Profession, and the Public Interest† on its Web site. (Shwarz, 2005) It announced the imminent issuance of an exposure draft on a new audit standard on fraud, the third in five years up to 2002, providing more specific guidance on corporate reporting standards than was found at the time in SAS no. 82, ‘Consideration of Fraud in a Financial Statement Audit.’ The Institute also promised a â€Å"revised standard on reviews of quarterly financial statements,† (Thomas, 2002) as well as the issuance, in the second quarter of 2002, of an exposure draft of a standard to improve the audit, transaction reporting and disclosure process. The major piece of legislation to come out of the Enron scandal was the Sarbanes Oxley (SOX) report, which was passed by the U.S. Congress in 2002 in response to the demise of Enron and the WorldCom scandal. SOX requires firms to vouch for accounting controls and disclose weaknesses to shareholders, and almost all concerned parties have agreed that the SOX was a necessary and useful piece of legislation, that helped restore faith in U.S. companies and their financial statements. (Swartz, 2005) However, whilst no one disputes the benefits, business leaders have often complained that â€Å"the costs associated with Section 404 compliance are much higher than expected, and are an undue burden on most companies.† (Swartz, 2005) Many major companies, and some analysts, have criticised the large increases in auditing expenses, as these expenses create no direct value for businesses, and act to remove money from the economy which would otherwise be invested. Business lobbyists have a lso begun lobbying government bodies in the major financial centres, claiming that SOX slows business expansion and the growth in the number of available jobs (Swartz, 2005) The level of complaints from companies about the increased costs associated with the new corporate reporting standards prompted U. S. auditing regulators, in May 2005, to move to ease the auditing expenses companies were forced to engage in, however regulators also said that the law has greatly benefited investors and there is no need for the U.S. Congress to change it at this time. (Swartz, 2005) Despite the obvious benefits that the increased level of reporting and disclosure provides to investors, many companies have complained that the compliance costs are too high, and that auditors force them to go through expensive corporate reporting procedures that accomplished little than to line the auditor’s pockets. 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